How to write an essay:
1)Face validity
2)Construct Validity
3)Content Validity
FACE VALIDITY
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| The first impression is the lasting one. Write neatly to attract your readers along. |
Basic Paragraph Structure
In many languages, the fundamental unit of composition is the paragraph. A paragraph consists of several sentences that are grouped together. This group of sentences together discuss one main subject. In U.S. formal academic English, paragraphs have three principal parts. These three parts are the topic sentence, body sentences, and the concluding sentence. We will also talk briefly about details in paragraphs.
The Topic Sentence
A topic sentence usually comes at the beginning of a paragraph; that is, it is usually the first sentence in a formal academic paragraph. (Sometimes this is not true, but as you practice writing with this online lesson, please keep to this rule unless you are instructed otherwise.) Not only is a topic sentence the first sentence of a paragraph, but, more importantly, it is the most general sentence in a paragraph. What does "most general" mean? It means that there are not many details in the sentence, but that the sentence introduces an overall idea that you want to discuss later in the paragraph.
For example, suppose that you want to write a paragraph about the natural landmarks of your hometown. The first part of your paragraph might look like this:
My hometown is famous for several amazing natural features. First, it is noted for the Wheaton River, which is very wide and beautiful. Also, on the other side of the town is Wheaton Hill, which is unusual because it is very steep.
Note how the first sentence, My hometown, Wheaton, is famous for several amazing geographical features, is the most general statement. This sentence is different from the two sentences that follow it, since the second and third sentences mention specific details about the town's geography, and are not general statements.
Here are some examples of sentences that cannot be used as topic sentences. Can you figure out why they are inappropriate?
- My hometown is famous because it is located by Wheaton River, which is very wide, and because it is built near an unusually steep hill called Wheaton Hill.
- There are two reasons why some people like to buy cars with automatic transmission and two reasons why others like cars with manual transmission.
- Clouds are white.
The problem with sentence #1 is that it contains too many details. Topic sentences are general, and details should appear later in the paragraph. A better topic sentence would be like the one mentioned above, My hometown is famous for several amazing geographical features.
Sentence #2 is not appropriate as a topic sentence because it mentions two topics, not just one. Paragraphs are usually about one main thing and so their topic sentences should also be about only one main thing.
The problem with sentence #3 is that it is too general. It is also very boring! Would you like to read a paragraph with this topic sentence? Most people would not.
We can rewrite sentences #2 and #3 in the following ways to make it better:
- There are two reasons why some people like to buy cars with automatic transmission.
OR (in a different paragraph):
- There are two reasons why some people like cars with manual transmission.
- The shapes of clouds are determined by various factors.
Supporting Sentences
Consider again the above-mentioned, short paragraph:
My hometown, Wheaton, is famous for several amazing natural features. First, it is noted for the Wheaton River, which is very wide and beautiful. Also, on the other side of the town is Wheaton Hill, which is unusual because it is very steep.
When a reader reads a topic sentence, such as My hometown, Wheaton, is famous for several amazing natural features, a question should usually appear in the reader's mind. In this case, the question should be like, "What are the natural features that make Wheaton famous?" The reader should then expect that the rest of the paragraph will give an answer to this question.
Now look at the sentences after the topic sentence. We can see that the second sentence in the paragraph, First, it is noted for the Wheaton River, which is very wide and beautiful, indeed gives an answer to this question. That is, the second sentence gives some explanation for the fact that Wheaton is a famous town. Similarly, we can see that the third sentence also gives some explanation for the fact that Wheaton is famous by giving another example of an "amazing natural feature," in this case, Wheaton Hill.
The second and third sentences are called supporting sentences. They are called "supporting" because they "support," or explain, the idea expressed in the topic sentence. Of course, paragraphs in English often have more than two supporting ideas. The paragraph above is actually a very short paragraph. At minimum, you should have at least five to seven sentences in your paragraph. Here we can see our paragraph about Wheaton with a few more supporting sentences in bold font:
My hometown is famous for several amazing natural features. First, it is noted for the Wheaton River, which is very wide and beautiful. Also, on the other side of the town is Wheaton Hill, which is unusual because it is very steep. The third amazing feature is the Big Old Tree. This tree stands two hundred feet tall and is probably about six hundred years old.
As was mentioned the topic sentence is something general and what follows tries to specify it. In other words, it is, of course, the most important sentence in the paragraph, and it takes the form of a generalization, which is supported or proved by specific facts in the remaining sentences of that paragraph. It may be helpful at this point to examine the difference between a generalization and a specific statement:
Generalization | Specific Statement |
Most women prefer to wear popular styles. | Marnie Ellison wore a plaid kilt and brown clothing suede boots. |
Freshmen often find the first week of college confusing. | Fifteen minutes after the bell had rung, a gangling, dark-haired, athletic-looking boy was wandering about the halls asking everyone he met how to get to L-26. |
A session in Dr. Malcolm’s economics class is a boring experience. | In a voice more soothing than a lullaby, Dr. Malcolm reads page after page of factual information from the old black binder that holds his undergraduate notes. |
It is important that the student recognize immediately the difference between the generalization and the specific statement. Note that in column A the sentences are broad and nonspecific.
In the following, the writer only offers generalities with no support to defend his ideas:
A session in Dr. Malcolm’s economics class is a boring experience. Dr. Malcolm does not know how to liven up a class. He’s afraid to do anything exciting or startling. His classes are monotonous and boring for the student. He probably knows a lot about his subject, but his presentation of it leaves much to be desired. His students never get interested in the subject of economics, which should be a pretty great thing to study. As a result, Dr. Malcolm is not a very popular college instructor.
The Concluding Sentence
In formal paragraphs you will sometimes see a sentence at the end of the paragraph which summarizes the information that has been presented. This is the concluding sentence. You can think of a concluding sentence as a sort of topic sentence in reverse.
You can understand concluding sentences with this example. Consider a hamburger that you can buy at a fast-food restaurant. A hamburger has a top bun (a kind of bread), meat, cheese, lettuce, and other elements in the middle of the hamburger, and a bottom bun. Note how the top bun and the bottom bun are very similar. The top bun, in a way, is like a topic sentence, and the bottom bun is like the concluding sentence. Both buns "hold" the meat, onions, and so on. Similarly, the topic sentence and concluding sentence "hold" the supporting sentences in the paragraph. Let's see how a concluding sentence (in bold font) might look in our sample paragraph about Wheaton:
My hometown is famous for several amazing natural features. First, it is noted for the Wheaton River, which is very wide and beautiful. Also, on the other side of the town is Wheaton Hill, which is unusual because it is very steep. The third amazing feature is the Big Old Tree. This tree stands two hundred feet tall and is probably about six hundred years old. These three landmarks are truly amazing and make my hometown a famous place.
Notice how the concluding sentence, These three landmarks are truly amazing and make my hometown a famous place, summarizes the information in the paragraph.
Notice also how the concluding sentence is similar to, but not exactly the same as, the topic sentence.
Not all academic paragraphs contain concluding sentences, especially if the paragraph is very short. However, if your paragraph is very long, it is a good idea to use a concluding sentence.
Details in Paragraphs
The short paragraph in this lesson is a fairly complete paragraph, but it lacks details. Whenever possible, you should include enough details in your paragraphs to help your reader understand exactly what you are writing about. In the paragraph about Wheaton, three natural landmarks are mentioned, but we do not know very much about them. For example, we could add a sentence or two about Wheaton river concerning HOW wide it is or WHY it is beautiful. Consider this revision (and note the additional details in bold):
My hometown is famous for several amazing natural features. First, it is noted for the Wheaton River, which is very wide and beautiful. On either side of this river, which is 175 feet wide, are many willow trees which have long branches that can move gracefully in the wind. In autumn the leaves of these trees fall and cover the riverbanks like golden snow. Also, on the other side of the town is Wheaton Hill, which is unusual because it is very steep. Even though it is steep, climbing this hill is not dangerous, because there are some firm rocks along the sides that can be used as stairs. There are no trees around this hill, so it stands clearly against the sky and can be seen from many miles away. The third amazing feature is the Big Old Tree. This tree stands two hundred feet tall and is probably about six hundred years old. These three landmarks are truly amazing and make my hometown a famous place.
If we wished, we could also add more details to the paragraph to describe the third natural feature of the area, the Big Old Tree.
Why are details important?
Consider the example of the hamburger, mentioned above. If the hamburger buns are the topic and concluding sentences, then the meat, the cheese, the lettuce, and so on are the supporting details. Without the food between the hamburger buns, your hamburger would not be very delicious! Similarly, without supporting details, your paragraph would not be very interesting.
A Note on Formality.
In addition to having a particular kind of structure, academic paragraphs (and multi-paragraph essays, which will be topic of another lesson) are different from "ordinary writing" (such as letter writing) in that certain kinds of expressions are not allowed. For example, in formal essays, you should not use contractions such as don't or aren't. Instead, you should write out the words in full, for example, do not and are not.
Also, in formal essays you should avoid the first and second person. That is, do not use the pronouns I or you. The pronouns we and us are sometimes used in formal essays in some major fields, but in general you should not use these unless you are certain that they are customary in your field and/or your professor allows them. It is safer simply to use the third person.
Exercise:
(a) Write one topic sentence for each of the following topics:
- Your hometown
- A place you would like to travel to.
- (Another topic of your own choosing)
(b) Choose one of the above topics and write ONE complete paragraph about it. You should use a good topic sentence and adequately detailed supporting sentences. You do not have to include a concluding sentence if you do not wish to do so.
Cohesion and Coherence
Cohesion is how your writing fits together. Does your writing with its ideas and content flow logically?
It means everything in your writing is logically laid out and connected. If it was an essay, one thing leads on to another, so that your topic sentence comes first and logically would come your supporting ideas:
I love dolphins because they are cute, lovable and smart.
Your supporting ideas are:
1. Cute
2. Lovable
3. Smart.
how are the sentences and structure laid in logical order will give you cohesion
Coherence
Coherence is product of many different factors, which combine to make every paragraph, every sentence, and every phrase contribute to the meaning of the whole piece. Coherence is the product of two factors — paragraph unity and sentence cohesion.
Paragraph Unity
To achieve paragraph unity, a writer must ensure two things only. First, the paragraph must have a single generalization that serves as the focus of attention, that is, a topic sentence. Secondly, a writer must control the content of every other sentence in the paragraph's body such that (a) it contains more specific information than the topic sentence and (b) it maintains the same focus of attention as the topic sentence.
Sentence Cohesion
To achieve cohesion, the link of one sentence to the next, consider the following techniques:
- Repetition. In sentence B (the second of any two sentences), repeat a word from sentence A.
- Synonymy. If direct repetition is too obvious, use a synonym of the word you wish to repeat. This strategy is call 'elegant variation.'
- Antonymy. Using the 'opposite' word, an antonym, can also create sentence cohesion, since in language antonyms actually share more elements of meaning than you might imagine.
- Pro-forms. Use a pronoun, pro-verb, or another pro-form to make explicit reference back to a form mentioned earlier.
- Collocation. Use a commonly paired or expected or highly probable word to connect one sentence to another.
- Enumeration. Use overt markers of sequence to highlight the connection between ideas. This system has many advantages: (a) it can link ideas that are otherwise completely unconnected, (b) it looks formal and distinctive, and (c) it promotes a second method of sentence cohesion, discussed in (7) below.
- Parallelism. Repeat a sentence structure. This technique is the oldest, most overlooked, but probably the most elegant method of creating cohesion.
- Transitions. Use a conjunction or conjunctive adverb to link sentences with particular logical relationships.
a) Identity. Indicates sameness.
that is, that is to say, in other words, ...
b) Opposition. Indicates a contrast.
but, yet, however, nevertheless, still, though, although, whereas, in contrast, rather, ...
c) Addition. Indicates continuation.
and, too, also, furthermore, moreover, in addition, besides, in the same way, again, another, similarly, a similar, the same, ...
d) Cause and effect.
therefore, so, consequently, as a consequence, thus, as a result, hence, it follows that, because, since, for, ...
e) Indefinites. Indicates a logical connection of an unspecified type.
in fact, indeed, now, ...
f) Concession. Indicates a willingness to consider the other side.
admittedly, I admit, true, I grant, of course, naturally, some believe, some people believe, it has been claimed that, once it was believed, there are those who would say, ...
g) Exemplification. Indicates a shift from a more general or abstract idea to a more specific or concrete idea.
for example, for instance, after all, an illustration of, even, indeed, in fact, it is true, of course, specifically, to be specific, that is, to illustrate, truly, ...
Task Fulfillment:
This is where you can really make a difference through careful preparation. This is yourself understood and whether the reader of your writing understands what you are saying. An example of bad coherence and cohesion would be as follows:
1 We went to the beach because it was raining.
Probably the writer of this sentence does not mean "because" as people don't usually go to the beach when it is raining. The writer should have written:
2 We went to the beach although it was raining.
Sentence 1 has made a cohesion and coherence error (as well as a vocabulary one). "Because" does not join the ideas of the sentence together correctly and, as a result, the reader does not understand what the writer wants to say. This is an exaggerated example but it shows what I
Coherence and Unity
As was mentioned above, coherence refers to a certain characteristic or aspect of writing. Literally, the word means "to stick together." Coherence in writing means that all the ideas in a paragraph flow smoothly from one sentence to the next sentence. With coherence, the reader has an easy time understanding the ideas that you wish to express.
Consider the following paragraph:
My hometown is famous for several amazing natural features. First, it is noted for the Wheaton River, which is very wide and beautiful. On either side of this river, which is 175 feet wide, are many willow trees which have long branches that can move gracefully in the wind. In autumn the leaves of these trees fall and cover the riverbanks like golden snow. Second, on the other side of the town is Wheaton Hill, which is unusual because it is very steep. Even though it is steep, climbing this hill is not dangerous, because there are some firm rocks along the sides that can be used as stairs. There are no trees around this hill, so it stands clearly against the sky and can be seen from many miles away. The third amazing feature is the Big Old Tree. This tree stands two hundred feet tall and is probably about six hundred years old. These three landmarks are truly amazing and make my hometown a famous place.
Look at the words in bold font. Do you see how they help guide the reader? For example, consider the words, First, Second, and The third amazing feature. We can call these words major connectors. Major connectors help organize the main parts of your paragraph. This paragraph has three main parts:
(1) a part about the Wheaton River,
(2) a part about Wheaton Hill, and
(3) a part about the Big Old Tree.
Another way of saying this is that this paragraph has three main points which are indicated by the major connectors. Using such major connectors is an important way of providing coherence in a paragraph.
Minor Connectors
What about the other words in bold, such as those appearing in the phrases "these trees" and "this hill"? We can call these minor connectors. Minor connectors provide coherence to a paragraph by connecting sentences within each of the main parts of your paragraph. That is, when you write about your main points, you can use minor connectors to link your details to each main point.
EXERCISE
Now, look at this paragraph. Can you identify the main points?
Each of the U.S. manned space exploration projects had specific major goals. The Mercury project was designed to test whether or not human beings could survive and function in outer space. The Mercury project tested rockets with the new Mercury space capsule, which could hold one person. The Gemini project was intended to find out whether two people could work in the weightless environment of space. Gemini astronauts took "spacewalks." They floated outside their spacecraft in a spacesuit, connected to it by a tether. Gemini astronauts tried out new flying skills. Some astronauts flew two spacecraft extremely close together; this procedure was called "rendezvous." On some Gemini flights, astronauts physically linked two spacecraft together. Linking, or "space docking," was a major goal of the Gemini program. The Apollo project, with three astronauts, was intended to test spacecraft and skills so that people could actually fly to the Moon and land on it. Performing scientific experiments on the lunar surface and collecting rocks for study on Earth were goals.
Was this paragraph a little confusing to read? Now consider the same paragraph with a few changes:
Each of the U.S. manned space exploration projects had specific major goals. For example, the Mercury project was designed to test whether or not human beings could survive and function in outer space. In addition, the Mercury project tested rockets with the new Mercury space capsule, which could hold one person. As another example, the Gemini project was intended to find out whether two people could work in the weightless environment of space. One way of doing this was by having Gemini astronauts take "spacewalks." That is, they floated outside their spacecraft in a spacesuit, connected to it by a tether. Gemini astronauts also tried out new flying skills. For example, some astronauts flew two spacecraft extremely close together; this procedure was called "rendezvous." On some Gemini flights, astronauts physically linked two spacecraft together. This linking, or "space docking," was a major goal of the Gemini program. Finally, the Apollo project, with three astronauts, had the goal of testing spacecraft and skills so that people could actually fly to the Moon and land on it. Other goals included performing scientific experiments on the lunar surface and collecting rocks for study on Earth.
Do you see which of the connectors above are major and which are minor? The major ones are For example in the second sentence, which introduces the first supporting point (the Mercury program); As another example, which begins the second main point (the Gemini program); and the word Finally, which introduces the third and last main point (the Apollo moon program). (In the paragraph above, all of the major connectors are underlined.)
As for the minor connectors, we can divide them into three groups. The first group of minor connectors provides coherence for the first main point (the Mercury program). There is only one minor connector in this first group, In addition, although it is possible to have more than one, depending on how many details you have to support your first main point.
The second group of minor connectors consists of That is, also, and also the phrase For example in the sentence, "For example, some astronauts..." Notice that this last minor connector is the same as the major connector at the beginning of the paragraph. However, the function of each is different, depending on the meaning of the sentences.
The third group of minor connectors in this particular paragraph also has one member, which is Other goals included....
Here is a table of a few common connectors (also called transitions):
For example, For instance, One example of (this) is First, Second, Third, Another example of [xxx] is (that) etc. | As another example, Finally, In conclusion, To summarize, | On the one hand, On the other hand, However, ..., but... also |
Common connective words indicating:
Addition | Sequence | Consequence | Contrast |
in addition and similarly likewise as well as besides furthermore also moreover and then too not only ... but also/ even besides this/that | first(ly) initially second(ly) etc. to begin with then next earlier/later after this/that following this/that afterwards | as a result thus so therefore consequently it follows that thereby eventually then in that case admittedly | however on the other hand despite in spite of though although but on the contrary otherwise yet instead of rather whereas nonetheless even though compared with in contrast alternatively |
Certainty | Condition | Definition | Summary |
obviously certainly plainly of course undoubtedly | if unless whether provided that for so that whether depending on | is refers to means that is consists of | in conclusion, in summary, lastly, finally to sum up, to conclude to recapitulate, in short |
Example | Reason | Time | |
for instance one example for example just as in particular such as namely to illustrate | since as so because (of) due to owing to the reason why in other words leads to cause | before since as until meanwhile at the moment when whenever as soon as just as |
Unity is a very important characteristic of good paragraph writing. Paragraph unity means that one paragraph is about ONLY ONE main topic. That is, all the sentences -- the topic, supporting sentences, the detail sentences, and (sometimes) the concluding sentence -- are all telling the reader about ONE main topic. If your paragraph contains a sentence or some sentences that are NOT related to the main topic, then we say that the paragraph "lacks unity," or that the sentence is "off-topic."
Look at the following paragraph, which is similar to the paragraph that we have studied above. Does it have perfect unity? Try to find the sentence that is off-topic:
Each of the Russian manned space exploration projects had specific major goals. For example, the Vostok project was designed to test whether or not human beings could survive and function in outer space. For another example, the Voshkhod project was intended to find out whether people could work in the weightless environment of space. One Voshkhod cosmonaut experimented with weightlessness by taking a "spacewalk." That is, he floated in a spacesuit outside his Voshkhod spacecraft, connected to it by a tether. The cosmonaut to do this was Alexei Leonov. Several weeks later, Leonov's spacewalk was followed by that of U.S. astronaut Ed White. Finally, the Soyuz project, with three cosmonauts, had goals of testing spacecraft and spaceflight skills so that people could fly long missions in Earth orbit.
This paragraph is generally good, but the sentence, Several weeks later, Leonov's spacewalk was followed by that of U.S. astronaut Ed White, does not have anything to do with the major goals of the various Russian space projects. That is, it is an "off-topic" sentence, so we can say that the paragraph somewhat lacks unity. In order to improve the paragraph, we should omit this sentence, even though it is historically accurate.
